Port side of the Titanic bow, the two capstans and the port and starboard anchor chains are visible. (©Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution)
Forty years after the Titanic discovery, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution continues to advance ocean research and exploration
How cutting-edge technology, novel search techniques, and persistence paid off
June 30, 2025
WOODS HOLE, MA – On September 1, 1985, the wreck of the RMS Titanic was discovered about 12,500 feet (3,800 meters) beneath the surface of the North Atlantic by an international team led by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) and the French oceanographic institution, IFREMER. The expedition, led by Robert Ballard–then head of WHOI’s Deep Submergence Lab–used innovative technology and search techniques that helped spawn a new era in deep-sea exploration and discovery.
Deep ocean technology has evolved over the past 40 years, but the discovery remains one of the world’s most famous oceanographic achievements and set the stage for decades of scientific breakthroughs that followed.
At the time of the expedition, WHOI was already a world leader in oceanographic research and deep-sea exploration. The human occupied vehicle (HOV) Alvin launched in 1964, was one of the first research submersibles capable of carrying humans to extreme ocean depths. In 1977, a team led by WHOI scientists Dr. Richard Von Herzen and Dr. Ballard helped discover hydrothermal vents, which changed the understanding of life on Earth by proving that ecosystems could exist without sunlight. This growing expertise in deep-water survey and exploration turned out to be extremely helpful to the U.S. Navy and pivotal to the eventual discovery of RMS Titanic.
In the summer of 1985, Ballard and his crew quietly set out for the North Atlantic on the Navy-owned research vessel Knorr, with new WHOI-developed underwater imaging technology to survey the wreckage of the USS Scorpion, a nuclear submarine lost at sea in 1968.
Onboard was ARGO, a unique remotely operated deep-sea vehicle equipped with a video camera system and side-scan sonar for mapping the seafloor in detail. Unlike earlier systems, ARGO transmitted real-time video to the control room aboard Knorr, enabling researchers to identify seafloor anomalies immediately instead of waiting for film to be developed. This real-time imaging approach marked a turning point in ocean exploration.
They also carried one of the first uncrewed camera systems called ANGUS which was lowered on a non-conducting trawl wire that would be used to photograph the Titanic once it was found.
The plan was for the French to use their new side-scanning sonar called SAR that conducted a series of overlapping swaths called “mowing the lawn” to ensure they covered 100% of the ocean floor. But after covering 50% of the total search area, they failed to find it. Ballard was now faced with what seemed like an impossible challenge since the Navy wanted him to image the wreck of the USS Scorpion before heading to the Titanic search area.
Since the Titanic had broken apart well before reaching the bottom (as had the Scorpion), he decided not to look for the Titanic but to search for its trail of debris, which in the case of the Scorpion, was over one mile long. This way, he could spread his search lines one mile apart and quickly cover the remaining search effort.
In the early morning hours of September 1, after less than one week of scouring the seafloor for the trail of debris, his fatigued team recognized one of Titanic’s boilers, and then they followed the debris to the north, leading them to the wreck of the Titanic itself. After 73 years lying at the bottom of the North Atlantic, the RMS Titanic had been found.
“Finding the Titanic was extraordinarily exciting, but simultaneously a bit gut-wrenching,” explained Stewart Harris, chief engineer on WHOI’s Argo project. “Over 1500 people lost their lives in the accident, and with all the hoopla surrounding the discovery, it was important for us to be mindful of that. Nonetheless, the technology demonstration was an eye-opener for the oceanographic community.”
According to a 1985 New York Times report, “The Titanic’s discovery awaited the creation of sophisticated new robots to explore the inky depths of the ocean bottom, in particular, the ARGO, an advanced robot craft equipped with searchlights and television and still cameras that can survive the crushing pressure of the ocean’s weight and pierce the darkness miles under water.”
The team’s success using ARGO to find the Titanic and ANGUS to film it proved that uncrewed, towed imaging systems could be used for deep-sea exploration. In 1986, Ballard and a team from WHOI returned to the Titanic’s resting place with HOV Alvin and Jason Jr., a miniature remotely operated vehicle mounted to and controlled from the submersible, to conduct a detailed exploration of the wreckage. Alvin and Jason Jr. captured some of the first up-close images of the ship, inside and out, revealing details about the ship’s deterioration and providing scientific insights into deep-sea corrosion and microbial activity on shipwrecks.
According to Dana Yoerger, senior scientist at WHOI, who was part of the Titanic discovery team, “Ballard taught us all that searching in the ocean requires planning, the right mix of technologies, patience, and discipline. Today, we program our autonomous robots following his example.”
Since the Titanic’s discovery in 1985, deep-ocean exploration technology has advanced significantly. Today, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) and remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) enable more advanced research, deeper dives, and more efficient mapping. Ultra-high-definition cameras, including those developed by WHOI’s MISO Facility, provide high-resolution imagery of deep-sea environments. Multi-beam, high-resolution sonar and 3D mapping, including deep-sea photogrammetry, relay sharply defined details. More powerful control systems and new search strategies have helped AUVs deliver a wealth of discoveries about the deep, perpetually dark seafloor.
“Titanic proved to be a pivotal moment in exploration of the deep sea. The addition of larger area search and survey technology, coupled to Alvin, was among the first effective demonstrations of robots and humans working together in the deep ocean,” said Andy Bowen, principal engineer at WHOI, who designed Jason Jr. for the 1986 return to Titanic. ”Our development of the ROV Jason Jr. and subsequent, larger Jason vehicle created an inflection point that accelerated our access into the deep sea. The resulting technology and its impact have added a surprising and welcome dimension to Titanic’s legacy.
“The success in the discovery of the Titanic, and the subsequent ocean exploration technologies developed since, have provided an incredible foundation for a new generation of ocean explorers,” said WHOI’s Anna Michel, Chief Scientist of the NSF-funded National Deep Submergence Facility (NDSF), which operates Alvin and Jason. “Today’s early career engineers and researchers can look back with pride at the history created by the teams that helped in the discovery of the Titanic.”
The discovery of the Titanic in 1985 was made possible by the novel use of real-time imaging, debris field analysis, and towed deep-sea vehicles—strategies that remain fundamental in modern exploration. Today, WHOI continues to lead in the development of cutting-edge oceanographic technologies, helping unlock the secrets of one of the planet’s final frontiers.
In Ballard’s words “The discovery of the Titanic opened a new chapter in deep sea exploration, since the deep sea is the largest museum in the world with an estimated three million chapters of human history in its depths, most of which are waiting to be discovered by the next generation of underwater explorers”.
For developing countries, seafood imports are a nutritional bargain
Developing countries pay less for the nutrition in seafood imports than developed countries
July 1, 2025
Developing countries pay less for the nutrition in seafood imports than developed countries, largely because developed countries pay a premium for non-nutritional attributes such as convenience, according to a new economic analysis appearing in Nature Communications. The findings suggest that disruptions to the global seafood trade could affect food and nutritional security in countries that depend on seafood imports for meeting their dietary needs.
“Every way we sliced the data, the outcome was the same: developing countries get more nutrition for every dollar they spend on imports compared to wealthier nations,” said Marine (Yaqin) Liu, first author on the study and environmental economist at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI). “They’re getting more protein, more fatty acids, more iron, and more vitamin B12. That’s because they aren’t paying a premium for the non-nutritional traits that developed countries tend to value more.”
Seafood, which comes from marine and freshwater environments, is the top-traded food commodity in the world and plays an outsize role in food security. More than a third of the global population relies on seafood for at least 20% of their animal protein intake. Fish and shellfish also provide key nutrients, including heart-healthy fatty acids, as well as essential vitamins and minerals — or micronutrients — such as B12 and calcium.
“We mostly take micronutrients for granted in high-income, developed countries, partly because we fortify foods and partly because we just have a lot of them in our diets already from eating a lot of animal products. But micronutrient deficiencies are a real problem for many developing countries,” said Martin Smith, George M. Woodwell Distinguished Professor of Environmental Economics in the Nicholas School of the Environment at Duke University, who designed the study.
Because developing countries tend to export more expensive seafood and import less expensive seafood, the researchers wondered: Are those countries sacrificing nutrition for lower-cost goods?
To answer that question, the team combined information from two large databases: The first, called United Nations Comtrade, provides global trade data on both wild-caught and farmed seafood. The second database, managed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, provides detailed nutritional information categorized by seafood species and product type, such as frozen or fresh fish, and whole or fillet.
“By linking these two databases together, we could match nutrient content with the specific seafood products exchanging hands,” Liu said.
Focusing on the years 2015 to 2021, the researchers analyzed 266 unique seafood products representing 90% of the global seafood trade. Then, they used six different methods to classify each importing country as either developed or developing based on several socioeconomic factors, such as gross domestic product and food insecurity. All told, the team examined 267,505 records on bilateral trade, or the exchange of goods between two countries.
“We’re the first team to do this analysis in the seafood trade sector,” Liu continued.
For each of those records, they then calculated the nutrient content per dollar for each of nine nutrients — including protein, fatty acids, vitamin B12, calcium, iron, zinc, potassium and magnesium. They consistently found that developing countries, which are typically low- and middle-income countries, pay lower prices for nutrition in imported seafood than developed countries.
For example, a pound of fresh salmon and a pound of frozen salmon have approximately the same amount of protein, but because developing countries pay less for frozen fish, they essentially get more protein per dollar.
“When it comes to seafood imports, developing countries get more nutritional bang for their buck,” said co-author Joshua Abbott, a professor of sustainability at Arizona State University.
Researchers also found that the discrepancy between developed and developing countries largely reflects differences in preference for seafood qualities unrelated to nutrition.
“Seafood consumers in the United States, Japan, the European Union, and other high-income countries are paying a high premium for getting more fresh fish into their markets, even though it’s not more nutritious,” Smith explained. “When wealthier countries pay extra for freshness, that creates an opportunity for lower-income countries to import frozen fish for a lower price and still get that nutrition.”
From a global health perspective, the findings are encouraging, according to the authors.
“We initially worried that the lower cost of seafood imports might reflect lower nutritional value,” Liu said. “But our research shows that’s not the case. In fact, our findings indicate that any disruption to global seafood trade could negatively impact nutrition in developing countries.”
WHOI scientist publishes commentary on forecasting a pause in Northwest Atlantic warming
July 9, 2025
A new invited commentary by Ke Chen, associate scientist in the Physical Oceanography department at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI), is highlighting the significance of a study published in Geophysical Research Letters.
Chen’s commentary, “Understanding and Predicting Northwest Atlantic Shelf Temperature Variability,” published in Geophysical Research Letters, discusses the broader context of a recent study by Koul et al. (2024). That study focuses on recent advances in forecasting coastal ocean variability, including a potential temporary slowdown in the rapid warming of the Northwest Atlantic continental shelf over the next decade —an outcome linked to natural climate fluctuations, including predicted changes in Atlantic Ocean circulation and a shifting Gulf Stream.
The Northwest Atlantic continental shelf—home to some of the most productive fisheries in North America—has warmed rapidly in recent decades and experienced increasingly frequent marine heatwaves. These changes pose significant risks to marine ecosystems, fisheries, and coastal infrastructure.
“The recent study uses a regional ocean model to predict a temporary slowdown in the region’s warming over the next decade,” said Chen. “While this research demonstrates our ability to forecast regional climate variability, more studies and long‐term observations are needed to deepen our understanding of key ocean processes and improve model accuracy.”
The commentary also notes that while the study represents a significant advancement, further research is needed to explore alternative modeling frameworks and better resolve uncertainties. “This work highlights both the progress we’ve made and the challenges that lie ahead.”
New report highlights plastic pollution as a grave and growing danger to health and announces an independent, health-focused global monitoring system
August 4, 2025
As ministers and diplomats arrive in Geneva, Switzerland, for a final round of talks to conclude a UN-backed global plastics treaty, a major new report published in the British medical journal The Lancet issues a stark warning: Plastic pollution is a grave and growing danger to human and planetary health. The report, which includes co-authors from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution’s (WHOI) Microplastics team, provides the most up-to-date assessment of the links between human health and plastic pollution across the full life cycle of plastic. A new monitoring system announced at the same time offers a way to track a suite of scientifically relevant indicators in order to quantify the human health impacts of plastics.
“There is a direct connection between human health and the health of the environment, particularly the ocean,” said report co-author, WHOI senior scientist, and marine biologist John Stegeman. “And the health of the ocean is threatened in many, as-yet unknown ways by the presence and degradation of plastic from the surface to the deep seafloor. This report is a clarion call for leaders at all levels of society to take meaningful, science-based action that protects human health and the planetary systems that support us all.”
While the impacts of plastic pollution on human health and the environment are growing, the report finds, increasing harm due to plastics is not inevitable. UN Member States will gather in Geneva, Switzerland from August 5-14, 2025, for the expected final round of talks to conclude a global plastics treaty to end plastic pollution. The mandate for these negotiations is to develop an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment, based on a comprehensive approach that addresses the full complexity of plastics in the environment.
“One of the biggest challenges we face is the fact that plastics are not a single substance,” said Chris Reddy, a report co-author, leader of the WHOI Microplastics initiative, and WHOI senior scientist and marine chemist. “Plastics are, in fact, thousands of polymers that take countless forms and include tens of thousands of chemical additives. A single piece of plastic released into the ocean is subject to any number of external forces that determine how it interacts with its surroundings—and with us.”
An estimated 8 billion metric tons of plastic waste now pollute the planet. Micro- and nano-plastic particles and multiple plastic chemicals are found in the most remote reaches of the environment and in the bodies of marine and terrestrial species worldwide, including humans. The new report chronicles the human health impacts of plastics and plastic pollution from infancy to old age, and highlights the significant health-related economic costs.
Coincident with the expected finalization of the global plastics treaty, the report also announces the launch of an independent, health-focused global monitoring system on plastics: The Lancet Countdown on Health and Plastics inspired by the model and impact of the Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change.
The new Countdown will identify and regularly report on a suite of scientifically meaningful and geographically and temporally representative indicators across all stages of the plastic life cycle, and track progress towards minimising exposures and mitigating human health impacts. In doing so, the Countdown will provide independent data to inform decision-making for the benefit of public health. It will also develop and track indicators across four domains: Production and Emissions, Exposures, Health Impacts, and Interventions and Engagement.
“We know a great deal about the range and severity of the health and environmental impacts of plastic pollution across the full life cycle of plastic,” said Prof. Philip Landrigan, MD, a paediatrician and epidemiologist, Director of the Global Observatory on Planetary Health at Boston College, and the lead author of the new report in The Lancet. “These impacts fall most heavily on vulnerable populations, especially infants and children. They result in huge economic costs to society. It is incumbent on us to act in response. To those meeting in Geneva: please take up the challenge and the opportunity of finding the common ground that will enable meaningful and effective international cooperation in response to this global crisis.”
The Lancet Countdown on Health and Plastic was funded primarily by the Minderoo Foundation. Additional funding and in-kind support are provided by Boston College, the Centre Scientifique de Monaco and Heidelberg University, and two workshops held to develop the Countdown were supported by the Centre Scientifique de Monaco and The March Foundation, in conjunction with the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Minderoo, including any of its benefactors, Boston College, the Centre Scientifique de Monaco, and Heidelberg University, did not have any influence over the writing of the manuscript or the decision to submit it for publication.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) is a private, non-profit organization on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, dedicated to marine research, engineering, and higher education. Established in 1930, its mission is to understand the ocean and its interactions with the Earth as a whole, and to communicate an understanding of the ocean’s role in the changing global environment. WHOI’s pioneering discoveries stem from an ideal combination of science and engineering—one that has made it one of the most trusted and technically advanced leaders in fundamental and applied ocean research and exploration anywhere. WHOI is known for its multidisciplinary approach, superior ship operations, and unparalleled deep-sea robotics capabilities. We play a leading role in ocean observation and operate the most extensive suite of ocean data-gathering platforms in the world. Top scientists, engineers, and students collaborate on more than 800 concurrent projects worldwide—both above and below the waves— pushing the boundaries of knowledge to inform people and policies for a healthier planet. Learn more at whoi.edu.
